Far from the Holy of Holies: How did ancient Jews observe Yom Kippur 2,000 years ago?

Two thousand years ago, as the high priest entered the Holy of Holies on Yom Kippur, Jews throughout the Land of Israel and across the Diaspora were fasting. But what else were they doing?

The day’s special status was highlighted by the high priest’s entry into the Holy of Holies, where he offered incense.

While the biblical rules of fasting and the prohibition of labor applied to everyone, the major prayers of Yom Kippur that we are so familiar with today – Kol Nidrei, “Avinu Malkenu,” “Unetaneh Tokef” – had not yet been composed.

Did they pray at home? Did they hold prayer assemblies? Did they attend a synagogue? If they prayed, what did they say?

The American writer and humorist James Thurber (1894-1961) once observed, “It is better to know some of the questions than all of the answers.” When it comes to reconstructing Yom Kippur as it was experienced by ordinary Jews 2,000 years ago, Thurber’s observation is particularly apt.

TO BETTER understand what Jews outside Jerusalem and in the Diaspora did on Yom Kippur during Temple times, I spoke with Prof. Yair Furstenberg of the Talmud department at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem.

Furstenberg suggests that the primary source that sheds light on what Jews outside the Temple did on Yom Kippur comes from the writings of Philo, the Jewish philosopher who lived in Alexandria, 20 BCE-50 CE, while the Second Temple was still standing. Alexandria was one of the most important Jewish communities in the ancient world.

In section 186, he writes, “On the 10th day the fast takes place, which they take seriously – not only those who are zealous about piety and holiness, but even those who do nothing religious the rest of the time. For all are astounded, overcome with the sacredness of it; in fact, at that time the wicked compete with the righteous in self-control and virtue.”

Adds Furstenberg dryly, “The commentator here writes, ‘There is nothing new under the sun.’”

Beyond fasting, how did the people observe Yom Kippur?

Furstenberg again cites Philo (ibid. section B193), who writes, “From morning until evening, the people spend their time doing nothing else but offering fervent prayers, seeking to appeal to God and asking forgiveness for their sins, both intentional and unintentional, and hoping for His favor – not because of their own merit, but because of His merciful nature.”

Where and how did they pray?

While Talmudic sources attribute the origins of organized prayer to the time of Ezra, Furstenberg says that the idea of fixed prayer – the formal prayers with which we are familiar – was unknown in Judaism during the Second Temple period.

“We assume that synagogues are made for prayer,” he says, “but Second Temple sources associate synagogues with Torah study.”

Taking the question further, he asks, “Philo says that we’re asking for forgiveness and praying; who knows if there is someone who leads the prayer. Does one pray personally? How do you do it? It’s hard to say.”

If one accepts the Talmudic concept of fixed prayer during the Second Temple period, one could imagine Jews gathering to recite the Shema and the Amida and read the Torah on Yom Kippur.

If, however, Furstenberg’s theory is correct, then the question remains – what did they pray and how did they pray?

While Furstenberg says the standard format of fixed prayer we are familiar with did not exist at that time, the Qumran sect, which existed during the Second Temple period, from the second century BCE until 68 CE, had created its own set of fixed prayers.

The Dead Sea Scrolls, found in caves near Qumran on the northwestern shore of the Dead Sea about 35-40 km. east of Jerusalem, preserve prayers and liturgy from Jews who lived during this period and separated themselves from the religious establishment in Jerusalem.

One of the Yom Kippur prayers found in the Dead Sea Scrolls reads, “Remember, O Lord, the appointed time of Your mercy, and establish it for us – the appointed time of fasting, an everlasting statute.

“You know the hidden things and the revealed things, and You know our nature, our rising and our lying down. We live with sorrow in our hearts by day, and we have no confidence in our lives. Remember our sorrow and our weeping.”

While the Torah states that on Yom Kippur “you shall afflict yourselves” (Leviticus 23:27), Yom Kippur, according to most sources, is not considered a day of mourning.

Furstenberg adds that the Karaites, who appeared many years later, in the ninth century, also adopted the idea of affliction and sadness on Yom Kippur.

This approach sharply contrasts with a Mishnah at the end of Ta’anit (4:8), which states: “Rabban Shimon ben Gamliel said: There were no days as joyous for the Jewish people as the 15th of Av and as Yom Kippur…”

On those two days – Yom Kippur and the 15th of Av – the Mishnah continues, the daughters of Jerusalem would dress in borrowed white garments, so that poorer women would not be embarrassed, and dance in the vineyards. At the same time, young men sought wives, emphasizing character and family over beauty.

Furstenberg notes that this passage portrays Yom Kippur as a day of rejoicing. Why did the people of Jerusalem celebrate?

Beyond the Talmudic explanation, Furstenberg suggests that this celebratory spirit was connected to the release of tension surrounding the Temple Service, as the people waited for the high priest to emerge from the Holy of Holies.

Another source of tension surrounded the sending of the goat to Azazel, which symbolized the removal of the people’s sins.

WHAT DOES all of this leave us with? How did the people outside the Temple, both in the Land of Israel and the Diaspora, pray on Yom Kippur? Did they have fixed prayers or informal prayers?

Even if they had a set prayer format, there is little reason to assume that they sat in a synagogue all day, listening to prayer leaders chant complicated liturgical poems as many do today.

For many, Yom Kippur may therefore have included far more private prayer and introspection than the synagogue-centered observance familiar to us today.

Furstenberg suggests that for many, the Temple was the focal point of worship that day, and those who were not there had to wait for the results. Something larger than them was happening. “I think that makes sense in an ancient mindset,” he concludes.

We may never know precisely what a Jew in Alexandria, the Galilee, or Babylonia said to God on Yom Kippur 2,000 years ago. Ironically, even today, with hundreds of pages of carefully ordered prayers before us, we can sometimes find ourselves facing the same problem: What do we say?

Prayer throughout the year, and especially on Yom Kippur, can be difficult, and the combination of ritual and introspection can be especially challenging.

Perhaps the challenge of Yom Kippur prayer is not simply finding the right words, but the sincerity behind them.