July 4, 2026 will mark the 250th anniversary of the signing of the Declaration of Independence. When we look back at the behavior of America’s Founding Fathers, we see that we have much to learn that could be relevant to us today.
When the 13 states proclaimed their independence from the British monarchy, the communities of Jews in the United States were sparse and very small in number. But despite their small numbers, they raised issues regarding equal rights.
As the first president of the United States, George Washington was confronted with this issue before he even took office. Philadelphia resident Jonas Phillips, a retired soldier of the Revolutionary Army, wrote to Washington and complained that the state of Pennsylvania required those holding public office to swear allegiance under the Bible, consisting of both the Old and New Testament.
Since for a Jew such an oath is forbidden, it bars a Jew from any government status as an elected official, being part of a jury, or even as a witness in a legal case. This, Phillips maintained, discriminated against members of the Jewish faith. Phillips hoped that the Federal government, now being designed in Constitution Hall, would rectify such discriminatory laws.
Washington did not answer immediately, since he had not yet assumed office and could not give an authoritative answer. But after being elected as president, he stated that Article VI of the Constitution nullified any such religious discrimination. Jews were equal under the Constitution.
Washington wrote to the Hebrew congregation at Newport, Rhode Island, that “the Government of the United States… gives to bigotry no sanction, to persecution no assistance.” In general, the Jewish community benefited from letters by Washington and other presidents expressing regard for the American Jewish community.
The second president of the United States, John Adams, was a highly religious Christian, and his belief in the Jews was a reflection of his deeply held values. Adams had a strong regard for the Jewish people; he praised them for introducing monotheism to the world.
Adams lauded the Jews for doing more “to civilize men than any other nation” and even promoted the idea of a Jewish homeland. Adams greatly admired “the Hebrews,” describing them as “the most glorious nation that ever inhabited this earth.”
No distinctions between religions
Even before George Washington, Thomas Jefferson, the third US president, had to confront the question of Jews in America. As early as 1776, Jefferson co-sponsored a bill in the Virginia legislature to allow the naturalization of Jews, Catholics, and other non-Protestants as Virginia citizens.
During the debate on the bill, Jefferson quoted John Locke’s argument that no member of a different faith should be barred from civil rights in Virginia. Nevertheless, the bill was rejected by the Virginia state legislature, but the issue was taken up in the Constitutional Convention debate and incorporated as Article VI of the Constitution.
When the US Constitution was adopted in 1787, in accordance with Jefferson’s conviction, it contained in Article VI the clause that “no religious test shall ever be required as a qualification of public trust under the United States.” Jefferson was not present when the Constitution was proclaimed in September 1787, as he was US Ambassador to France at the time, but his influence was felt in the adoption of Article VI.
James Madison, fourth president, was not directly involved in matters relating to Jews but worked with fellow Founding Father Alexander Hamilton to formulate the text of Article VI. Madison was highly appreciative of Hebrew as a language. He was so conversant in Hebrew that, as valedictorian at Princeton University, he delivered his address in Hebrew.
Gouverneur Morris is best known as the “Penman of the Constitution,” since he coined the famous introductory words, “We the people.” Incongruously, Morris also expressed antisemitic sentiments, stating during a court case that “Jews are not to be believed upon oath.”
Hamilton was opposing counsel in the case and forcefully denounced Morris, saying that “Lady Justice” did not make distinctions between religions: “Be the injured party... Jew, or Gentile, or Christian, or Pagan, Foreign, or Native…”
The judge accepted Hamilton’s address, and this is widely considered one of the most powerful denunciations of antisemitism of the Founding Era.
The lessons of the Founding Fathers are highly instructive for us today: there is no justification for discrediting people without cause. The conduct of the Founding Fathers of America is a guide to us in the modern day to uphold the principles of fairness and equality.
Happy 250th, America!
The writer is the James G. McDonald professor of American History, Emeritus, and former chairman of the Department of American Studies at The Hebrew University of Jerusalem.